R
Ramacchandran
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Gokarena/ Gokarna:
The meaning of Gaokerena, is the land that yields lots of Herbals. This is liked by mother Earth..
JAMES DARMESTETER, Sirozahs,Yasts and Nyayis, Zend Avesta Part II, Published in Oxford 1883
This Gaokerena at later date called as Gokarna.
In Olden days the South India was called Dakshina patha and North India was called Uththara patha.
According to some Hindu legends, Parasurama shot his arrow into the sea and commanded the Sea God to recede up to the point where his arrow landed. The new piece of land thus recovered came to be known as Konkan meaning "piece of earth" or "corner of earth" (Kona(corner) + kana(piece)).
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a5/Map_of_the_Periplus_of_the_Erythraean_Sea.jpg
This Gokarna finds a place in the book of Claudius Ptolemaeus, (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ptolemy) and Periplus (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Periplus_of_the_Erythraean_Sea) who belongs to first century A.D. visited these coastal area and mentions about the ports through which cloths were exported. These two ports are mentioned in Mahaaniddesa (A Buddist Book) in B.C.250.
Periplus mentions about a port Angidii which may be Angadi which is 7 kms from present Gokarna. This place was called Malai Nadu as the coastal areas were protected by mountains and Claudius Ptolemaeus quotes that they can enter the coast with guide. This area was ruled by Mauriya Emperor in B.C.3rd BCE.
In the Sathavahana Empire (B.C. 235 to A.D.90-150, the empire did trade from Sea to Sea and were documented by Pliny, Strabo and Periplus. The notices are supported by various inscriptions. The port of Calliena (may be the place where river Gangamma meets the Sea) figures in several Buddists Cave inscriptions (H.B.Sarkar, Trade and Commercial Activities of Southern India in the Malaya- Indonesian world up to A.D.1511., Vol I., Firma KLM Pvt ltd., Calcutta 1986) After Sathavahana, this place was ruled by Gangas The Western Ganga Dynasty (350–1000 CE)
Abu Abd Allah Muhammad al-Idrisi al-Qurtubi al-Hasani al-Sabti or simply Al Idrisi, who visited this area in 1099–1165 or 1166., mentions about many ports in this area. (At the order of the King, al-Idrisi produced a silver celestial sphere and an enormous map of the world in disk form cast on a silver base. As a commentary to it, he wrote his large geography of the world. It was completed in January 1154 and became known as the Book of Roger in recognition of the King's important role in sponsoring it.)
He mentions about a Port located near West bank of Ganges which is none other than Present Gangamma river near Gokarna.(H.B.Sarkar, Trade and Commercial Activities of Southern India in the Malaya- Indonesian world up to A.D.1511., Vol I., Firma KLM Pvt ltd., Calcutta 1986 page no 204.)
After Western Ganga Dynasty the rule of the Chalukyas marks an important milestone in the history of South India and a golden age in the history of Karnataka. The political atmosphere in South India shifted from smaller kingdoms to large empires with the ascendancy of Badami Chalukyas. For the first time, a South Indian kingdom took control and consolidated the entire region between the Kaveri and the Narmada rivers. The rise of this empire saw the birth of efficient administration, overseas trade and commerce and the development of new style of architecture called "Chalukyan architecture" and Kannada Litreture, which had enjoyed royal support in the 9th century Rashtrakuta court found eager patronage from the Western Chalukyas in the Jain and Vashnava traditions. The 11th century saw the birth of Telugu Literature under the patronage of the Eastern Chalukyas.
In A.D.1000 Raja Raja I gained foot in this area. After seven years Hoysala gained entry in this area, in North Karnataka and South Karnataka was ruled by Yadavas. After this in A.D.1294 Mohamadian force entered in this area with Allaudin as chief and Bhamini Kingdom was established in 1347. Malikaffur entered this place and looted many temples and traders.and next 135 years there were struggles between Vijaya Nagara and Bhamini Emperors.In A.D. 1490, Vijaya nagara Minister Narasinga entered followed by Krishna Raya from 1509-1529.
The Bahamani kingdom in India extended from the northern Deccan region to the river Krishna. This empire was founded by Hasan Gangu who waged a battle against Muhammad bin Tughlaq and freed the Bahamani kingdom. He ruled under the title of Bahman Shah and was declared the founder of the Bahamani dynasty. This kingdom was in constant war with the Vijayanagar kingdom which was located to the south of the Bahamani kingdom. The Bahamani kingdom was founded around the year 1346.
Bahmani Sultanate
The Bahmani dynasty believed that they descended from Bahman the legendary king of Iran.
The sultanate was founded on 3 August 1347 by governor Ala-ud-Din Hassan Bahman Shah, who revolted against the Sultan of Delhi, Md-bin-Tuklak. Nazir uddin Ismail Shah who had revolted against the Delhi Sultan stepped down on that day in favour of Zafer Khan who ascended the throne with the title of Alauddin Bahman Shah. His revolt was successful, and he established an independent state on the Dekhan within the Delhi Sultanate's southern provinces. The Bahmani capital was Ahsanabad (Gulbarga) between 1347 and 1425 when it was moved to Muhammadabad (Bidar).
The Bahmani contested the control of the Deccan with the Vijaya nagar to the south. The sultanate reached the peak of its power during the vizierate (1466–1481) of Mahmud Gawan. After 1518 the sultanate broke up into five states Ahmed Nagar, Berar, Bidar, Bijapore and Golkonda.:
One of the most notable rulers of the Bahamani kingdom was Firuz Shah Bahamani who waged three battles against the Vijayanagar Empire. He was a learned man who had the knowledge of numerous religious as well as natural sciences. He always wanted to develop the Deccan region as the cultural hub of India. Though he was a devout Muslim, the only vices he was extravagant on were drinking wine and listening to music. Firuz Shah was asked to give up his kingdom and seat for his brother Ahmed Shah I who was considered to be a saint because of his connection with the Sufi saint Gesu Daraz. He annexed the territories of Warangal.
Then it came under Bijapore Sultan.
Its political decline started in the last quarter of the 15th century and eventual break-up in 1518. The Bijapur Sultanate was absorbed into the Mughal Empire on 12 September 1686, after its conquest by the Emperor Aurangzeb.[SUP][1][/SUP]
The founder of the Adil Shahi dynasty, Yusuf Adil Shah (1490-1510), was appointed Bahmani governor of the province, before creating a de-facto independent Bijapur state. Yusuf and his son, Ismail, generally used the title Adil Khan. 'Khan', meaning 'Chief' in Persian,conferred a lower status than 'Shah', indicating royal rank. Only with the rule of Yusuf's grandson, Ibrahim Adil Shah I (1534–1558), did the title of Adil Shah come into common use.
The Bijapur Sultanate's borders changed considerably throughout its history. Its northern boundary remained relatively stable, straddling contemporary Southern Maharashtra and Northern Karnataka. The Sultanate expanded southward, first with the conquest of the Raichur Doab following the defeat of the Vijayanagar Empire at the Battle of Talikota in 1565. Later campaigns, notably during the reign of Mohammed Adil Shah (1627–1657), extended Bijapur's formal borders and nominal authority as far south as Bangalore. Bijapur was bounded on the West by the Portuguese state of Goa and on the East by the Sultanate of Golconda, ruled by the Qutb Shahidynasty.
The former Bahmani provincial capital of Bijapur remained the capital of the Sultanate throughout its existence. After modest earlier developments, Ibrahim Adil Shah I (1534–1558) and Ali Adil Shah I (1558–1580) remodelled Bijapur, providing the citadel and city walls, Friday Mosque, core royal palaces and major water supply infrastructure. Their successors, Ibrahim Adil Shah II (1580–1627), Mohammed Adil Shah (1627–1657) Ali Adil Shah II (1657–1672),and Sikandar Adil Shah 1672-1686
Sikandar, an infant of four years was placed on the throne of Bijapur in 1672. The history of his reign is really the history of regents and wazirs. It was a period marked by chronic civil war among the factious nobles, independence of the provincial governors, paralysis of the central administration, occasional Mughal invasions, secret alliance but pretended hostility with the Marathas, and final absorption of Bijapur in the Mughal Empire.
Sikandar, an infant of four years was placed on the throne of Bijapur in 1672. The history of his reign is really the history of regents and wazirs. It was a period marked by chronic civil war among the factious nobles, independence of the provincial governors, paralysis of the central administration, occasional Mughal invasions, secret alliance but pretended hostility with the Marathas, and final absorption of Bijapur in the Mughal Empire.
Thus, the all round deterioration further crippled the political situation. The prestige of Bijapur was so seriously damaged by internal disruptions that the Mughal general Diler Khan almost coerced and humiliated Sikandar. Despite several sacrifices and desperate attempts on the part of Sikandar, he could not satisfy the growing greed of the Mughals. Sikandar’s alliance with Sambhaji further aggravated the Mughal-Bijapur relations. At last Aurangzeb himself marched out in 1685 with a large army to fulfil the ambition of his life. After desperately defending his capital and standing the prolonged siege of 1685-1686, Sikandar succumbed to the Mughals, and on 12th September 1686 Bijapur was occupied and annexed by Aurangzeb. He was buried at foot side of his spiritual teacher Hazrat Naimullah Hashmi in the open yard in the New Market Place of Bijapur. The Adil Shahi Monarchy thus came to an end.In 1701, Sikkandar Sha Died in Jail. But Aurangazeb also died in 1707, Feb 21
In 1722 Asaf Jah (Chin Kilicli Khan) became Vizier. He found it impossible to bring the Government into order, and in the year following retired to his province the Deccan, where he became independent and founded the existing dynasty of the Nizam, with effect from 1724.
Maratha government; Meantime, momentous changes had been effected after long struggles in the Marat government, which resulted during Muhammad Shah's lifetime in the Marathas becoming the most considerable power in India. The excellent system of internal administration instituted by Sivajl had not survived that chief. It fell to pieces, as we have seen, in the hands of his son, Sambhajl. During the civil war between different parties of Marathas which followed on the return of Shahu to his native country, after his release by Bahadur Shah, a new system of government was gradually evolved. The first Peshwa, Balaji Visvanath.. Raja Shahu, who had to defend his position as Raja against a rival claimant, leant for support chiefly on a Brahman from the Konkan, named Balaji Visvanath, who held from 1714 the office of Peshwa, as the second minister was called in the early Maratha administration.^
By reason of his personal qualities Balaji Visvanath made the office to count in practice as the first, and not the second. When he died in 1720 his official position was inherited by his son, Baji Rao (I), a man still abler than himself. The appointment of Peshwa thus became hereditary, and soon overshadowed the Raja, who sank into a purely ornamental position, exactly as the
Maharajadhiraj of Nepal has done in modern times. After Shahu the descendants of Sivajl dropped out of sight so completeh' that all readers of history think of the Maratha government in the eighteenth century as that of the Peshwas. Their dynasty, as we may call it, comprised seven persons, and may be regarded as having"^ lasted from 1714 to 1818, a little more than a century.
Shahu, who survived until 1748, granted his minister full powers in 1727.
Chauth and Sardesmukhi. Balaji Visvanath, as minister of Shahu, had succeeded in introducing a certain amount of order into the Maratha administration, and had made elaborate arrangements
for collecting the assignments of revenue from provinces belonging to other powers on which his government chiefly lived.The Marathas of those davs administered only comparatively small districts directly, preferring to raise contributions from provinces governed, nominallv at all events, by the emperor of Delhi or other potentates of that confused and anarchical tnne. In 1720 Muhammad Shah, confirming arrangements ma"e by Savyid Husain Ali, recognized by treaty the authority of Raja Shahu, admitted his right to lew the chanth, or assessment of one-fourth of the land revenue over the whole Deccan, and permitted him to supplement that levy by an additional tenth ot the land revenue called sardesmukhi.
Balaji Visvanath claimed that those levies should be calculated on the revenue as fixed either bv Todar Mall in Akbar s. or by INlalik Ambar in Shahjahan's time, well knowing that no such amount of revenue could be raised from a ruined country. He tlius securea' In Sivaji's time the Pratinidhi did not exist, and the Peslnva was the first minister.
The second Peshva, Baji Rao. Bajl Rao (1720) inheritedthe instrument of extortion so cunningly devised by his father,and used it with supreme skill. He resolved to establish the power of his nascent nation by reorganizing the army, and directing it against the northern territories of Hindostan held by the nerveless hands of Muhammad Shah. He also made arrangements by which he checked the growing power of Asaf Jah as ruler of the Hyderabad territories. The quarrels between Asaf Jah and Baji Rao ended in the rivals coming to terms (1731).
Nadir Shah ; battle of Karnal. Nadir (or Tahmasp) Kuli Khan, ' the greatest warrior Persia has ever produced ', had overthrown the Safavl dynasty in 1736, and been acclaimed king of
that country under the style of Nadir Shah. When established on his throne he easily found pretexts for the invasion and plunder of the rich and defenceless Indian plains. Advancing in 1739 through Ghazni, Kabul, and Lahore, he met with no real obstruction until he had approached the Jumna, Avithin 100 miles of Delhi, when he encountered the imperial army entrenched at Karnal, not very far from the field of Panlpat. After a fight lasting
two hours the imperialists were routed, some 20,000 being slain,and immense booty falling into the hands of the conqueror. Muhammad Shah made no attempt at further resistance, but attended
Nadir Shah in his camp, and was received courteously.
The meaning of Gaokerena, is the land that yields lots of Herbals. This is liked by mother Earth..
JAMES DARMESTETER, Sirozahs,Yasts and Nyayis, Zend Avesta Part II, Published in Oxford 1883
This Gaokerena at later date called as Gokarna.
In Olden days the South India was called Dakshina patha and North India was called Uththara patha.
According to some Hindu legends, Parasurama shot his arrow into the sea and commanded the Sea God to recede up to the point where his arrow landed. The new piece of land thus recovered came to be known as Konkan meaning "piece of earth" or "corner of earth" (Kona(corner) + kana(piece)).
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a5/Map_of_the_Periplus_of_the_Erythraean_Sea.jpg
This Gokarna finds a place in the book of Claudius Ptolemaeus, (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ptolemy) and Periplus (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Periplus_of_the_Erythraean_Sea) who belongs to first century A.D. visited these coastal area and mentions about the ports through which cloths were exported. These two ports are mentioned in Mahaaniddesa (A Buddist Book) in B.C.250.
Periplus mentions about a port Angidii which may be Angadi which is 7 kms from present Gokarna. This place was called Malai Nadu as the coastal areas were protected by mountains and Claudius Ptolemaeus quotes that they can enter the coast with guide. This area was ruled by Mauriya Emperor in B.C.3rd BCE.
In the Sathavahana Empire (B.C. 235 to A.D.90-150, the empire did trade from Sea to Sea and were documented by Pliny, Strabo and Periplus. The notices are supported by various inscriptions. The port of Calliena (may be the place where river Gangamma meets the Sea) figures in several Buddists Cave inscriptions (H.B.Sarkar, Trade and Commercial Activities of Southern India in the Malaya- Indonesian world up to A.D.1511., Vol I., Firma KLM Pvt ltd., Calcutta 1986) After Sathavahana, this place was ruled by Gangas The Western Ganga Dynasty (350–1000 CE)
Abu Abd Allah Muhammad al-Idrisi al-Qurtubi al-Hasani al-Sabti or simply Al Idrisi, who visited this area in 1099–1165 or 1166., mentions about many ports in this area. (At the order of the King, al-Idrisi produced a silver celestial sphere and an enormous map of the world in disk form cast on a silver base. As a commentary to it, he wrote his large geography of the world. It was completed in January 1154 and became known as the Book of Roger in recognition of the King's important role in sponsoring it.)
He mentions about a Port located near West bank of Ganges which is none other than Present Gangamma river near Gokarna.(H.B.Sarkar, Trade and Commercial Activities of Southern India in the Malaya- Indonesian world up to A.D.1511., Vol I., Firma KLM Pvt ltd., Calcutta 1986 page no 204.)
After Western Ganga Dynasty the rule of the Chalukyas marks an important milestone in the history of South India and a golden age in the history of Karnataka. The political atmosphere in South India shifted from smaller kingdoms to large empires with the ascendancy of Badami Chalukyas. For the first time, a South Indian kingdom took control and consolidated the entire region between the Kaveri and the Narmada rivers. The rise of this empire saw the birth of efficient administration, overseas trade and commerce and the development of new style of architecture called "Chalukyan architecture" and Kannada Litreture, which had enjoyed royal support in the 9th century Rashtrakuta court found eager patronage from the Western Chalukyas in the Jain and Vashnava traditions. The 11th century saw the birth of Telugu Literature under the patronage of the Eastern Chalukyas.
In A.D.1000 Raja Raja I gained foot in this area. After seven years Hoysala gained entry in this area, in North Karnataka and South Karnataka was ruled by Yadavas. After this in A.D.1294 Mohamadian force entered in this area with Allaudin as chief and Bhamini Kingdom was established in 1347. Malikaffur entered this place and looted many temples and traders.and next 135 years there were struggles between Vijaya Nagara and Bhamini Emperors.In A.D. 1490, Vijaya nagara Minister Narasinga entered followed by Krishna Raya from 1509-1529.
The Bahamani kingdom in India extended from the northern Deccan region to the river Krishna. This empire was founded by Hasan Gangu who waged a battle against Muhammad bin Tughlaq and freed the Bahamani kingdom. He ruled under the title of Bahman Shah and was declared the founder of the Bahamani dynasty. This kingdom was in constant war with the Vijayanagar kingdom which was located to the south of the Bahamani kingdom. The Bahamani kingdom was founded around the year 1346.
Bahmani Sultanate
The Bahmani dynasty believed that they descended from Bahman the legendary king of Iran.
The sultanate was founded on 3 August 1347 by governor Ala-ud-Din Hassan Bahman Shah, who revolted against the Sultan of Delhi, Md-bin-Tuklak. Nazir uddin Ismail Shah who had revolted against the Delhi Sultan stepped down on that day in favour of Zafer Khan who ascended the throne with the title of Alauddin Bahman Shah. His revolt was successful, and he established an independent state on the Dekhan within the Delhi Sultanate's southern provinces. The Bahmani capital was Ahsanabad (Gulbarga) between 1347 and 1425 when it was moved to Muhammadabad (Bidar).
The Bahmani contested the control of the Deccan with the Vijaya nagar to the south. The sultanate reached the peak of its power during the vizierate (1466–1481) of Mahmud Gawan. After 1518 the sultanate broke up into five states Ahmed Nagar, Berar, Bidar, Bijapore and Golkonda.:
One of the most notable rulers of the Bahamani kingdom was Firuz Shah Bahamani who waged three battles against the Vijayanagar Empire. He was a learned man who had the knowledge of numerous religious as well as natural sciences. He always wanted to develop the Deccan region as the cultural hub of India. Though he was a devout Muslim, the only vices he was extravagant on were drinking wine and listening to music. Firuz Shah was asked to give up his kingdom and seat for his brother Ahmed Shah I who was considered to be a saint because of his connection with the Sufi saint Gesu Daraz. He annexed the territories of Warangal.
- Aladdin Hassan Bahman Shah 1347–1358
- Mohammed Shah I 1358–1375
- Aladdin Mujahid Shah 1375–1378
- Da'ud Shah 1378
- Mohammed Shah II 1378–1397
- Ghiyath ud-Din 1397
- Shams ud-Din 1397
- Taj ud-Din Firuz Shah 1397–1422
- Ahmad Shah I Wali 1422–1436
- Aladdin Ahmad Shah II 1436–1458
- Aladdin Humayun Zalim Shah 1458–1461
- Nizam Shah 1461–1463
- Mohammed Shah III Lashkari 1463–1482
- Mohammed Shah IV (Mahmud Vira Shah) 1482–1518
- Ahmad Vira Shah III 1518–1521
- Aladdin Shah 1521–1522
- Wali-Allah Shah 1522–1525
- Kalim-Allah Shah 1525–1527
Then it came under Bijapore Sultan.
Its political decline started in the last quarter of the 15th century and eventual break-up in 1518. The Bijapur Sultanate was absorbed into the Mughal Empire on 12 September 1686, after its conquest by the Emperor Aurangzeb.[SUP][1][/SUP]
The founder of the Adil Shahi dynasty, Yusuf Adil Shah (1490-1510), was appointed Bahmani governor of the province, before creating a de-facto independent Bijapur state. Yusuf and his son, Ismail, generally used the title Adil Khan. 'Khan', meaning 'Chief' in Persian,conferred a lower status than 'Shah', indicating royal rank. Only with the rule of Yusuf's grandson, Ibrahim Adil Shah I (1534–1558), did the title of Adil Shah come into common use.
The Bijapur Sultanate's borders changed considerably throughout its history. Its northern boundary remained relatively stable, straddling contemporary Southern Maharashtra and Northern Karnataka. The Sultanate expanded southward, first with the conquest of the Raichur Doab following the defeat of the Vijayanagar Empire at the Battle of Talikota in 1565. Later campaigns, notably during the reign of Mohammed Adil Shah (1627–1657), extended Bijapur's formal borders and nominal authority as far south as Bangalore. Bijapur was bounded on the West by the Portuguese state of Goa and on the East by the Sultanate of Golconda, ruled by the Qutb Shahidynasty.
The former Bahmani provincial capital of Bijapur remained the capital of the Sultanate throughout its existence. After modest earlier developments, Ibrahim Adil Shah I (1534–1558) and Ali Adil Shah I (1558–1580) remodelled Bijapur, providing the citadel and city walls, Friday Mosque, core royal palaces and major water supply infrastructure. Their successors, Ibrahim Adil Shah II (1580–1627), Mohammed Adil Shah (1627–1657) Ali Adil Shah II (1657–1672),and Sikandar Adil Shah 1672-1686
Sikandar, an infant of four years was placed on the throne of Bijapur in 1672. The history of his reign is really the history of regents and wazirs. It was a period marked by chronic civil war among the factious nobles, independence of the provincial governors, paralysis of the central administration, occasional Mughal invasions, secret alliance but pretended hostility with the Marathas, and final absorption of Bijapur in the Mughal Empire.
Sikandar, an infant of four years was placed on the throne of Bijapur in 1672. The history of his reign is really the history of regents and wazirs. It was a period marked by chronic civil war among the factious nobles, independence of the provincial governors, paralysis of the central administration, occasional Mughal invasions, secret alliance but pretended hostility with the Marathas, and final absorption of Bijapur in the Mughal Empire.
Thus, the all round deterioration further crippled the political situation. The prestige of Bijapur was so seriously damaged by internal disruptions that the Mughal general Diler Khan almost coerced and humiliated Sikandar. Despite several sacrifices and desperate attempts on the part of Sikandar, he could not satisfy the growing greed of the Mughals. Sikandar’s alliance with Sambhaji further aggravated the Mughal-Bijapur relations. At last Aurangzeb himself marched out in 1685 with a large army to fulfil the ambition of his life. After desperately defending his capital and standing the prolonged siege of 1685-1686, Sikandar succumbed to the Mughals, and on 12th September 1686 Bijapur was occupied and annexed by Aurangzeb. He was buried at foot side of his spiritual teacher Hazrat Naimullah Hashmi in the open yard in the New Market Place of Bijapur. The Adil Shahi Monarchy thus came to an end.In 1701, Sikkandar Sha Died in Jail. But Aurangazeb also died in 1707, Feb 21
In 1722 Asaf Jah (Chin Kilicli Khan) became Vizier. He found it impossible to bring the Government into order, and in the year following retired to his province the Deccan, where he became independent and founded the existing dynasty of the Nizam, with effect from 1724.
Maratha government; Meantime, momentous changes had been effected after long struggles in the Marat government, which resulted during Muhammad Shah's lifetime in the Marathas becoming the most considerable power in India. The excellent system of internal administration instituted by Sivajl had not survived that chief. It fell to pieces, as we have seen, in the hands of his son, Sambhajl. During the civil war between different parties of Marathas which followed on the return of Shahu to his native country, after his release by Bahadur Shah, a new system of government was gradually evolved. The first Peshwa, Balaji Visvanath.. Raja Shahu, who had to defend his position as Raja against a rival claimant, leant for support chiefly on a Brahman from the Konkan, named Balaji Visvanath, who held from 1714 the office of Peshwa, as the second minister was called in the early Maratha administration.^
By reason of his personal qualities Balaji Visvanath made the office to count in practice as the first, and not the second. When he died in 1720 his official position was inherited by his son, Baji Rao (I), a man still abler than himself. The appointment of Peshwa thus became hereditary, and soon overshadowed the Raja, who sank into a purely ornamental position, exactly as the
Maharajadhiraj of Nepal has done in modern times. After Shahu the descendants of Sivajl dropped out of sight so completeh' that all readers of history think of the Maratha government in the eighteenth century as that of the Peshwas. Their dynasty, as we may call it, comprised seven persons, and may be regarded as having"^ lasted from 1714 to 1818, a little more than a century.
Shahu, who survived until 1748, granted his minister full powers in 1727.
Chauth and Sardesmukhi. Balaji Visvanath, as minister of Shahu, had succeeded in introducing a certain amount of order into the Maratha administration, and had made elaborate arrangements
for collecting the assignments of revenue from provinces belonging to other powers on which his government chiefly lived.The Marathas of those davs administered only comparatively small districts directly, preferring to raise contributions from provinces governed, nominallv at all events, by the emperor of Delhi or other potentates of that confused and anarchical tnne. In 1720 Muhammad Shah, confirming arrangements ma"e by Savyid Husain Ali, recognized by treaty the authority of Raja Shahu, admitted his right to lew the chanth, or assessment of one-fourth of the land revenue over the whole Deccan, and permitted him to supplement that levy by an additional tenth ot the land revenue called sardesmukhi.
Balaji Visvanath claimed that those levies should be calculated on the revenue as fixed either bv Todar Mall in Akbar s. or by INlalik Ambar in Shahjahan's time, well knowing that no such amount of revenue could be raised from a ruined country. He tlius securea' In Sivaji's time the Pratinidhi did not exist, and the Peslnva was the first minister.
The second Peshva, Baji Rao. Bajl Rao (1720) inheritedthe instrument of extortion so cunningly devised by his father,and used it with supreme skill. He resolved to establish the power of his nascent nation by reorganizing the army, and directing it against the northern territories of Hindostan held by the nerveless hands of Muhammad Shah. He also made arrangements by which he checked the growing power of Asaf Jah as ruler of the Hyderabad territories. The quarrels between Asaf Jah and Baji Rao ended in the rivals coming to terms (1731).
Nadir Shah ; battle of Karnal. Nadir (or Tahmasp) Kuli Khan, ' the greatest warrior Persia has ever produced ', had overthrown the Safavl dynasty in 1736, and been acclaimed king of
that country under the style of Nadir Shah. When established on his throne he easily found pretexts for the invasion and plunder of the rich and defenceless Indian plains. Advancing in 1739 through Ghazni, Kabul, and Lahore, he met with no real obstruction until he had approached the Jumna, Avithin 100 miles of Delhi, when he encountered the imperial army entrenched at Karnal, not very far from the field of Panlpat. After a fight lasting
two hours the imperialists were routed, some 20,000 being slain,and immense booty falling into the hands of the conqueror. Muhammad Shah made no attempt at further resistance, but attended
Nadir Shah in his camp, and was received courteously.
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